Rapid economic development has almost always been accompanied by the deterioration of air quality. In the Philippines, about 120 per 100,000 die annually due to air pollution1, a figure that exceeds the country’s 2020 – 2021 pandemic-related mortality. Of particular concern is PM2.5, a pollutant that is known for its adverse health effects. Long-term monitoring at the Manila Observatory (MO) site inside the Ateneo de Manila University (ADMU) campus consistently revealed PM2.5 concentrations that are higher than the annual guideline value set by the World Health Organization. Even higher PM2.5 levels were observed along Katipunan, Quezon City relative to the MO site. Thus, personal exposure levels may differ significantly from the mean exposure values obtained from fixed site measurements. This is especially true for jeepney drivers, whose livelihoods depend on the streets of Metro Manila. Their exposure is a large gap in our knowledge of exposure patterns and the extent of their vulnerability.
To support the analysis of the social and personal health risks associated with exposure to fine particulate pollution, it is important to develop and implement an approach to quantify the contribution of individual exposure pathways. A research team from MO and ADMU embarked on a case study that aimed to quantify the exposure of jeepney drivers to PM2.5 and to contextualize this within the larger socio-economic, health, and environmental issues surrounding the government proposal to modernize public utility vehicles (PUVs). A systems thinking lens was applied to distill the complexity of the issue, investigate the resistance to the proposal in the face of the hazards posed by PM2.5, and provide policy recommendations. While this is just one case study, it is a significant step towards identifying the most vulnerable population, the extent of their risk to air pollution, and the larger systemic factors driving these “everyday disasters”.
Metro Manila’s Climate and Disaster Resilience Challenges and Opportunities
Emma Porio
Anthropological and Sociological Initiatives of the Ateneo, Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Ateneo de Manila University
Metro Manila, just like other rapidly expanding metropolitan regions in the Asia Pacific Region, faces many challenges in improving the quality of life of its people, especially those residing in vulnerable communities, inhabited by informal settler families (ISFs), women, children, elderly and PWDs. In a recent survey of cities, Metro Manila was one of the three cities, alongside Beijing and Lagos, with the lowest quality of life, because of traffic congestion, pollution and climate-related hazards (e.g., floods, typhoons, sea level rise (SLR)), among others). More significantly, 40-60 percent of Metro Manila’s economy belongs to the informal sector (ADB 2014). A large number of ISFs, therefore, derive their income sources from street-based livelihood activities like vending, driving, etc., and are highly exposed to air pollution and other climate hazards (e.g., rising heat index). This panel interrogates the metrics of air quality, drivers’ perspectives of the modernization program and their social, political-economic implications to urban health and the city’s quality of life, especially those vulnerable sectors like street children, street vendors, and jeepney drivers.
Assessment of the Personal Exposure of Public Utility Jeepney Drivers in Metro Manila
Maria Obiminda L. Cambaliza
Department of Physics, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University
Air Quality Dynamics Laboratory, Manila Observatory
Jarl Tynan Collado,
Jose Gabriel Abalos,
Imee Delos Reyes,
Melliza T. Cruz, Gabrielle Frances Leung,
Christine Chan
Air Quality Dynamics Laboratory, Manila Observatory
Katrina Abenojar,
Carlos Manalo,
Charlotte Kendra Gotangco-Gonzales
Department of Environmental Science, Ateneo de Manila University
James Bernard B. Simpas
Department of Physics, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University
Air Quality Dynamics Laboratory, Manila Observatory
Emma E. Porio
Anthropological and Sociological Initiatives of the Ateneo, Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Ateneo de Manila University
John Q. Wong
EpiMetrics, Inc.
Shih-Chun Candice Lung
Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
PM2.5 (or particulate matter 2.5) refers to respirable solid and liquid particles mixed in the air with diameters less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers. Smaller than the width of the human hair, PM2.5 is regulated due to its association with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Long-term measurements of PM2.5 at the Manila Observatory consistently showed that our ambient atmosphere has been non-compliant with the annual guideline value set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Furthermore, the National Ambient Air Quality Status report revealed that the transportation sector contributes as much as 88% to air pollution emissions in Metro Manila. Of particular concern are high-risk occupational groups such as public utility jeepney drivers who ply the busy streets of Metro Manila for 10 to 12 hours a day, which chronically exposes them to elevated levels of fine particulate pollution. In light of this, we conducted field measurements for five weeks from November to December 2018 along Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City to quantify the personal exposure of jeepney drivers to PM2.5 and to identify locations with high pollution concentrations or hotspots along this high traffic route in the city. Real-time PM2.5 exposure of 31 drivers was measured for 10 to 12 hours a day for over 30 days. The mean PM2.5 personal exposure of the drivers was determined to be 36.4 g m-3, a figure that is seven times greater than the annual guideline value (5.0 g m-3) set by the WHO. Hotspots were also observed at key locations such as a transport terminal and at the vicinity of a shopping mall. The results of this study provide the much needed quantitative input towards the analysis of the socio-economic, health, and environmental issues associated with the government proposal to replace traditional jeepneys with eco-friendly jeeps that produce fewer PM emissions.
Ethnographic Research on Air Quality: From the Skies to the Streets
Emma E. Porio
Anthropological and Sociological Initiatives of the Ateneo, Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Ateneo de Manila University
Emily B. Roque
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, School of Social Science, Ateneo de Manila University
Maria Theresa Joy G. Rocamora
Department of Environmental Science, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University
This paper explores the experiences of exposure to environmental risks of air and noise pollution of street-based populations (SBPs) in Metro Manila, and their local knowledge systems regarding environmental pollution, health, and climate-related disaster risks. In particular, this study 1) characterizes the composition of SBPs and their levels of exposure to air and noise pollution, 2) describes the resource-opportunity structure of the streets and their strategies of coping and responding to air, and noise pollution, as well as health and climate-related disaster risks, and 3) identifies solution pathways for risk reduction from the perspective of highly exposed and vulnerable populations, as well as from the urban authorities (i.e., community or city officials, and law enforcers).
This study argues that amidst the biophysical hazards and threats of urban street life, and the disruptive effects of changing climate conditions, street-based groups construct adaptive strategies as they navigate through contested spaces, institutional constraints, and strategic networks. Through an ethnographic inquiry, the study used in-depth interviews, life histories, participant observation, direct and indirect observation, informal and unstructured interviews, and focus group discussions. This study unveils that their strategic practices are very much informed by their intimate knowledge of street and community power relations embedded in their perilous environment.
This paper hopes to contribute to the literature on bridging, translating, and integrating local knowledge systems regarding air and noise pollution to environmental justice and climate disasters in cities. The study results provide valuable insights for the larger scientific community, development practitioners, and policymakers regarding air pollution risks among the most highly exposed and vulnerable street-based population in the cities of the global south.
A Systems Perspective of the Environmental, Health and Socio-economic Concerns of Jeepney Drivers on the Shift to Electric Vehicles
Charlotte Kendra Gotangco Gonzales
Department of Environmental Science, School of Science and Engineering,
Ateneo Institute of Sustainability
Ateneo de Manila University
Katrina Abenojar
Department of Environmental Science, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University
Carlos Rosauro Manalo
Department of Environmental Science, School of Science and Engineering
Ateneo de Manila University
Melliza T. Cruz
Air Quality Dynamics Laboratory
Manila Observatory
Maria Obiminda L. Cambaliza
Air Quality Dynamics Laboratory, Manila Observatory; Department of Physics, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University
The shift to electric vehicles is one of proposals of the Philippines’ Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program which has met with resistance from a key stakeholder group the program is supposed to benefit – the jeepney drivers. This study utilized a systems thinking tool, the feedback-guided approach, to analyze the intersecting environmental, health, and socio-economic concerns that affect the receptiveness of jeepney drivers to the proposed shift. We developed a framework that links air quality, with a focus on PM2.5, quality of life, beliefs and traditions concerning the jeepney. This framework served as a guide for conducting a more holistic cost-benefit analysis using a system dynamics model. The data on drivers’ exposure to PM2.5 was complemented by key informant interviews with jeepney drivers, the operations manager of an electric jeepney fleet, and the Department of Transportation undersecretary. Results show that although there are potentially substantially lower environmental and health costs associated with PM2.5 exposure, the new technology creates high uncertainty and the new system of jeepney operations affects income-generation. Articulating these monetary as well as non-monetary trade-offs and benefits facilitated a better understanding of drivers’ paradigms governing willingness to shift to the new technology.